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PARTICULAR THINGS AND GENERAL THINGS

    In this book, this "PARTICULAR THINGS AND GENERAL THINGS" is also called "This Book." This book, "EXISTENCE AND LIBERTY," "DETAILS OF EXISTENCE AND LIBERTY," "SEPARATING EACH STATE POWER INTO THE TWO SYSTEMS OF THAT OF THE RULE OF LAW PROTECTING LIBERAL RIGHTS AND THAT OF THE HUMAN RULE SECURING SOCIAL RIGHTS," "SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF IMAGES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING MEMORIES," "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," and "FACING TENDENCIES FALLING INTO A VICIOUS CIRCLE―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING HABITS" are also called "These Books" in this book.
    Material things, material functions, bodies, bodily functions, nervous systems, nervous functions, neurons, neurons' excitements and transmissions, molecules, atoms, nuclei, neutrons, protons, electrons, universal gravitation, electrostatic force, magnetic force, and so on can be called "Things in Themselves." In contrast, sights, sounds, smells, dizziness, tastes, pain, hotness, coldness, palpitation, dyspnea, hunger, thirst, nausea, images, ideas, and so on can be called "Things Appearing as Mental Phenomena," Things Appearing as Phenomena, Appearing Things.
    The things which have spatial extent or are points, lines, or planes and have temporal extent or are moments can be called "Spatial and Temporal Things." For example 1, material things, matter, or substances are spatial and temporal things. For example 2, sights appearing on visual sensations with both eyes, sound sources appearing on auditory sensations with both ears are stereoscopic and have spatial and temporal extent, and some things appearing as mental phenomena are spatial and temporal things. In addition, the things which are themselves not spatial and temporal things but which a spatial and temporal thing has can be called the "Properties" of that spatial and temporal thing, the Properties which it has, the things which it has as properties, or the Properties attributed to it. For example 1, material things have universal gravitation as a property. For example 2, things appearing on visual sensations have color and brightness as properties. Moreover, it is probable that a property of a spatial and temporal thing has some things which are not spatial and temporal things, and the same are repeated. For example, universal gravitation which are a property of material things has direction and quantity as properties. They can be called the Properties of a property or so.
    This material thing, this body, this human being, I, you, he, she, this space, yesterday, today, tomorrow, the present, this sight, this image, this idea, and so on can be called "Particular Things."
    It is probable that more than one particular thing has the same property. In other words, it is probable that a property is attributed to more than one particular thing. For example 1, universal gravitation, velocity, acceleration, energy, and so on are the properties attributed to every material thing. For example 2, colors and brightness are the properties attributed to every sight, that is, everything appearing on a visual sensation.
    Most sets of particular things having some properties have already been designated by common nouns. For example, the set of particular things having the properties of being included in things in themselves, being included in spatial and temporal things, and consisting of some smaller particles like molecules, atoms, electrons, nuclei, positrons, neutrons, and so forth is designated by a common noun like "material things," "matter," "substances," or so. A set of particular things having some properties designated by a common noun can be called a "Set of General (Common Noun)s," a Set of (Common Noun)s, General (Common Noun)s, or (Common Noun)s. For example, the set of particular things having the properties enumerated above designated by the common noun of material things is also called a set of general material things, a set of material things, general material things, or material things.
    In contrast, some sets of particular things having some properties have not been designated by any common nouns yet. For example, the set of particular things having some properties of being included in things appearing mental phenomena and being included in spatial and temporal things has not been designated by any common nouns yet. Such a set can be designated by such words as a "Set of General (Noun Phrase designating some of its properties)s," a Set of (Noun Phrase)s, General (Noun phrase)s, or (Noun phrase)s. For example, the above set can be designated by such words as a set of general appearing spatial and temporal things, a set of appearing spatial and temporal things, general appearing spatial and temporal things, or appearing spatial and temporal things.
    Common noun or noun phrase designating some of its properties is represented as XXXs, YYYs, and so forth in this book. Then a set of particular things having some properties designated by XXXs can be called a Set of General XXXs, a Set of XXXs, General XXXs, or XXXs.
    In contrast to general XXXs, the particular things which are elements of a set of general XXXs can be called "Particular XXXs." For example, a particular thing which is an element of the set of general material things can be called a particular material thing.
    The properties without any of which XXXs could not be looked upon as XXXs can be called the "Necessary Properties" of or for XXXs. In mathematics, XXXs is often defined with its necessary properties. Such definition can be called "Definition with Properties."
    However, there are some things that can be designated by some common nouns but whose necessary properties cannot be enumerated. For example, it is impossible that we enumerate the necessary properties of time or space. Such a thing has no choice but to be defined by some samples that never designate any other things. For example, the time is defined as the past, the present, and the future. Such definition can be called "Definition with Samples." For example, again, things appearing (as mental phenomena) are defined as sights, sounds, smells, dizziness, tastes, pains, hotness, coldness, palpitation, dyspnea, hunger, thirst, nausea, images, and ideas.
    The set of XXXs having some necessary properties (a) includes the set of YYYs having the properties (a) and some other properties (b) as necessary properties, the set of YYYs includes the set of ZZZs having the properties (a and b) and some other properties as necessary properties, and the same are repeated. For example, the set of general material things having the necessary properties of being included in things in themselves, being included in spatial and temporal things, and consisting of some smaller particles include the set of general living things having the above properties and some other properties of consisting of macromolecules like proteins, lipids, saccharides, and so forth, and of reproducing some other material things which have the same necessary properties, and so forth as necessary properties.
    A set of general XXXs can also be called a "Set of XXXs as a "Kind," XXXs as a Kind, or a Kind of XXXs. A set of general XXXs can also be called the "Whole" or All of the XXXs, All XXXs. A set of general XXXs' including another set of general YYYs can also be called XXXs' Including YYYs as a kind, YYYs' being Parts of XXXs (as a kind), or YYYs' being a kind of XXXs. For example, the set of general living things' being included in the set of general material things can also called living things' being a kind of material thing. A thing's being included in another thing as a kind can be distinguished from a thing's being contained in another thing spatially or temporally.
    That a set of general XXXs include sets of general YYYs and ZZZs, that YYYs and ZZZs do not overlap, and that sum of YYYs and ZZZs are XXXs can be called XXXs' being "(Completely) Divided" into YYYs and ZZZs (as a Kind). For example, the things excluding the time and space are completely divided into things in themselves and appearing things as a kind.
    The sum of all the sets of general XXXs, YYYs, ZZZs, and so forth can be called the "Set of (General) Things," (General) Things, the Set of Things (as Kinds), Things (as Kinds). In contrast, the elements of the set of general things can be called particular things.
    When the word of things is replaced by the word of XXXs, that is, a common noun or a noun phrase designating some of its properties, XXXs are included in things. For example, material things are included in things. When the word of things are modified by some modifiers, what the words of "modified things" designate are included in things. For example, when the word of things is modified by the modifier "appearing," appearing things are included in things. When the word of "things" in the noun phrase of "modified things" is replaced by XXXs, what the words of the "modified XXXs" designate are included in XXXs. For example, when the word of "things" in the noun phrase of "things appearing as images" is replaced by the word of "the self," the self appearing as images are included in things appearing as images.
    Sets, elements, including, being included, the whole, parts, divisions, distinction, consisting of, and so on include those as kinds, those which are spatial, those which are temporal, those which are spatial and temporal. For example: solid, liquid, or gas is a part of the material things as a kind; the sea, the crust, the core, or the atmosphere is a spatial part of the earth; the past earth, the present earth, or the future earth is a temporal part of the earth; the Western modern history is a spatial and temporal part of the world history. However, when the modifiers like "as kinds," "spatial," "temporal," "spatial and temporal," and so forth are always used, sentences are complicated. In addition, it is usually clear in the contexts without such modifiers which of them is designated. Therefore, when it is clear in the context, such modifiers will be omitted in these books.
    Though the things excluding time and space are completely divided in things in themselves and things appearing as mental phenomena, what are explained in this book are all applicable to both of them.